Current File : /var/www/html/higroup/v2n24/cache/da0e17feb3f884d87423d449df9e8b96
a:5:{s:8:"template";s:46130:"<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, maximum-scale=1">
<title>{{ keyword }}</title>
<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Roboto%3A400%2C700%2C900%7CPoppins%3A400%2C700%2C900" rel="stylesheet"><script type="text/javascript">
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<style type="text/css">
img.wp-smiley,
img.emoji {
display: inline !important;
border: none !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
height: 1em !important;
width: 1em !important;
margin: 0 .07em !important;
vertical-align: -0.1em !important;
background: none !important;
padding: 0 !important;
}
</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" id="evenex-widget-styles-pro-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/evenex-essential/modules/elements/assets/css/widget-styles-pro.css?ver=1.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="sweetalert2-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/user-registration/assets/css/sweetalert2/sweetalert2.min.css?ver=8.17.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="user-registration-general-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/user-registration/assets/css/user-registration.css?ver=1.9.6" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="user-registration-smallscreen-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/user-registration/assets/css/user-registration-smallscreen.css?ver=1.9.6" type="text/css" media="only screen and (max-width: 768px)">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="user-registration-my-account-layout-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/user-registration/assets/css/my-account-layout.css?ver=1.9.6" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="dashicons-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/css/dashicons.min.css?ver=5.8.2" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="tribe-common-skeleton-style-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/the-events-calendar/common/src/resources/css/common-skeleton.min.css?ver=4.13.0.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="tribe-tooltip-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/the-events-calendar/common/src/resources/css/tooltip.min.css?ver=4.13.0.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="tribe-common-full-style-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/the-events-calendar/common/src/resources/css/common-full.min.css?ver=4.13.0.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="event-tickets-tickets-css-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/event-tickets/src/resources/css/tickets-v1.min.css?ver=5.1.2.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="event-tickets-tickets-rsvp-css-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/event-tickets/src/resources/css/rsvp-v1.min.css?ver=5.1.2.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="wp-block-library-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=5.8.2" type="text/css" media="all">
<style id="wp-block-library-theme-inline-css" type="text/css">
#start-resizable-editor-section{display:none}.wp-block-audio figcaption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .wp-block-audio figcaption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.wp-block-code{font-family:Menlo,Consolas,monaco,monospace;color:#1e1e1e;padding:.8em 1em;border:1px solid #ddd;border-radius:4px}.wp-block-embed figcaption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .wp-block-embed figcaption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.blocks-gallery-caption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .blocks-gallery-caption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.wp-block-image figcaption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .wp-block-image figcaption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.wp-block-pullquote{border-top:4px solid;border-bottom:4px solid;margin-bottom:1.75em;color:currentColor}.wp-block-pullquote__citation,.wp-block-pullquote cite,.wp-block-pullquote footer{color:currentColor;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:.8125em;font-style:normal}.wp-block-quote{border-left:.25em solid;margin:0 0 1.75em;padding-left:1em}.wp-block-quote cite,.wp-block-quote footer{color:currentColor;font-size:.8125em;position:relative;font-style:normal}.wp-block-quote.has-text-align-right{border-left:none;border-right:.25em solid;padding-left:0;padding-right:1em}.wp-block-quote.has-text-align-center{border:none;padding-left:0}.wp-block-quote.is-large,.wp-block-quote.is-style-large{border:none}.wp-block-search .wp-block-search__label{font-weight:700}.wp-block-group.has-background{padding:1.25em 2.375em;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}.wp-block-separator{border:none;border-bottom:2px solid;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;opacity:.4}.wp-block-separator:not(.is-style-wide):not(.is-style-dots){width:100px}.wp-block-separator.has-background:not(.is-style-dots){border-bottom:none;height:1px}.wp-block-separator.has-background:not(.is-style-wide):not(.is-style-dots){height:2px}.wp-block-table thead{border-bottom:3px solid}.wp-block-table tfoot{border-top:3px solid}.wp-block-table td,.wp-block-table th{padding:.5em;border:1px solid;word-break:normal}.wp-block-table figcaption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .wp-block-table figcaption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.wp-block-video figcaption{color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}.is-dark-theme .wp-block-video figcaption{color:hsla(0,0%,100%,.65)}.wp-block-template-part.has-background{padding:1.25em 2.375em;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#end-resizable-editor-section{display:none}
</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" id="pmpro_frontend-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/paid-memberships-pro/css/frontend.css?ver=2.5.7" type="text/css" media="screen">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="pmpro_print-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/paid-memberships-pro/css/print.css?ver=2.5.7" type="text/css" media="print">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="theme-my-login-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/theme-my-login/assets/styles/theme-my-login.min.css?ver=7.1.3" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="elementor-icons-ekiticons-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/elementskit-lite/modules/elementskit-icon-pack/assets/css/ekiticons.css?ver=2.5.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="elementskit-parallax-style-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/evenex-essential/modules//parallax/assets/css/style.css?ver=1.5.9" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="event-tickets-rsvp-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/event-tickets/src/resources/css/rsvp.min.css?ver=5.1.2.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="event-tickets-tpp-css-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/event-tickets/src/resources/css/tpp.min.css?ver=5.1.2.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="fonts-css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Poppins%3A300%2C400%2C500%2C600%2C700%26display%3Dswap%7CRoboto%3A400%2C500%2C700%26display%3Dswap%7CRubik%3A400%2C500%2C700%26display%3Dswap%7CArchivo%3A400%2C500%2C600%2C700&ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="bootstrap-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/bootstrap.min.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="fontawesome-min-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/fontawesome.min.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="select2-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/user-registration/assets/css/select2.css?ver=1.9.6" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="evenex-image-choose-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/image-choose-control.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="evenex-icon-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/iconfont.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="xs-grid-line-animation-css-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/grid-line-parallax.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="evenex-blog-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/blog.css?ver=1.4" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="evenex-master-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/css/master.css?ver=1641050289" type="text/css" media="all">
<style id="evenex-master-inline-css" type="text/css">
h1{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:36px;
}
h2,
.post .entry-header .entry-title,
.search .page .entry-header .entry-title{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:30px;
}
h3{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:24px;
}
h4{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:18px;
}
h5{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:16px;
}
h6{
font-family: Poppins, sans-serif;color:#101010;font-size:14px;
}
body{
background:#ffffff;
font-family: Roboto, sans-serif;color:#666666;line-height:1.625;font-size:16px;
}
.logo-area .site-title a , .logo-area .site-desc{
color:#ec962d;
}
.post .entry-header .entry-title a:hover,
.sidebar ul li a:hover, .xs-footer-section ul li a:hover,
.post-meta a:hover,
.header .navbar-light .navbar-nav li a:hover {
color: #ec962d;
}
.tag-lists a:hover, .tagcloud a:hover,
.sticky.post .meta-featured-post,
.widget-title:before,
.xs-custom-widget > h5:before,
.block-title.title-border .title-bg,
.block-title.title-border .title-bg::before ,
.owl-next, .owl-prev,
.header .navbar-light .navbar-nav>li.active>a:before,
.main-slider .owl-prev.disabled,
.owl-dots:before,
.featured-tab-item .nav-tabs .nav-link.active:before,
.owl-theme .owl-dots .owl-dot.active span,
.ts-footer .widget-title:before,
.main-slider .owl-next:hover, .main-slider .owl-prev:hover,
.sidebar .widget.widget_search .input-group-btn, .xs-footer-section .widget.widget_search .input-group-btn,
.xs-search-group .search-button,
.banner-solid,
.pagination li.active a,
.wp-block-button:not(.is-style-outline) .wp-block-button__link,
.wp-block-button .wp-block-button__link:not(.has-background),
.wp-block-file .wp-block-file__button,
.back_to_top > a,
.post .meta-featured-post::after {
background:#ec962d;
}
.post .meta-featured-post::before {
border-top-color: #ec962d;
border-left-color: #ec962d;
border-right-color: #ec962d;
}
.xs-search-group .search-button:hover,
.pagination li.active a:hover,
.wp-block-button:not(.is-style-outline) .wp-block-button__link:hover,
.wp-block-file .wp-block-file__button:hover {
background:#ff7c49;
}
.header-btn {
background: linear-gradient(90deg,#ec962d 0,#ff7c49 100%);
}
.header-btn::before {
box-shadow: 0 15px 25px 0 #ec962d;
}
.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:hover,
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:active:not(.has-text-color):hover,
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:focus:not(.has-text-color):hover,
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:not(.has-text-color):hover,
.breadcrumb>li a:hover {
color: #ff7c49;
}
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:active:not(.has-text-color),
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:focus:not(.has-text-color),
.wp-block-button.is-style-outline .wp-block-button__link:not(.has-text-color),
.navbar-nav .nav-link:hover,
.dropdown-item.active,
.dropdown-item:active,
.navbar-nav .dropdown-menu li:hover>a,
.xs-recent-post-widget .widget-post .entry-title>a:hover {
color: #ec962d;
}
.tag-lists a:hover, .tagcloud a:hover,
.owl-theme .owl-dots .owl-dot.active span{
border-color: #ec962d;
}
.block-title.title-border .title-bg::after{
border-left-color: #ec962d;
}
.block-title.title-border{
border-bottom-color: #ec962d;
}
.topbar .top-nav li a:hover,
.comments-list .comment-author a:hover,
.comments-list .comment-reply-link:hover,
.post-title a:hover,
.copyright-area a:hover,
.ts-footer .widget ul li a:hover,
.featured-tab-item .nav-tabs .nav-link.active .tab-head>span.tab-text-title,
.social-links li a:hover,
.comment-author cite a:hover {
color:#ec962d;
}
.xs-footer-section{
background-color: #FFF;
}
.btn-primary {
background: linear-gradient(90deg, #ec962d 0, #ff7c49 100%);
}
.sidebar .widget .widget-title:before {
background: #ec962d;
}
</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" id="ekit-widget-styles-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/elementskit-lite/widgets/init/assets/css/widget-styles.css?ver=2.5.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<link rel="stylesheet" id="ekit-responsive-css" href="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/elementskit-lite/widgets/init/assets/css/responsive.css?ver=2.5.1" type="text/css" media="all">
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.6.0" id="jquery-core-js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.3.2" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script>
<script src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/the-events-calendar/common/src/resources/js/underscore-before.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/js/underscore.min.js?ver=1.13.1" id="underscore-js"></script>
<script src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/the-events-calendar/common/src/resources/js/underscore-after.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-includes/js/wp-util.js?ver=5.8.2" id="wp-util-not-in-footer-js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/evenex-essential/modules//parallax/assets/js/jarallax.js?ver=1.5.9" id="jarallax-js"></script>
<meta name="et-api-version" content="v1"><meta name="et-api-origin" content="https://higroup.coding.al"><link rel="https://theeventscalendar.com/" href="https://higroup.coding.al/index.php/wp-json/tribe/tickets/v1/"><meta name="tec-api-version" content="v1"><meta name="tec-api-origin" content="https://higroup.coding.al"><link rel="https://theeventscalendar.com/" href="https://higroup.coding.al/index.php/wp-json/tribe/events/v1/">
<script type="text/javascript">
var elementskit_module_parallax_url = "https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/plugins/evenex-essential/modules//parallax/"
</script>
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/cropped-Bag-page-001-270x270.jpg">
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
.xs-price::before {
background: linear-gradient(to left,#FF924B 0,#F25022 100%);
} </style>
</head>
<body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-9047 single-format-standard pmpro-body-has-access user-registration-page tribe-no-js check sidebar-active elementor-default elementor-kit-8181">
<header id="header" class="header header-classic header-main ">
<div class="container">
<nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg">
<a class="logo" href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 0 }}">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 0 }}<img class="img-fluid" src="https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/New-Project-4.png" alt="MixieSocialHub">
</a>
<button class="navbar-toggler p-0 border-0" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#primary-nav" aria-controls="primary-nav" aria-expanded="false" aria-label="Toggle navigation">
<span class="header-navbar-toggler-icon"></span>
<span class="header-navbar-toggler-icon"></span>
<span class="header-navbar-toggler-icon"></span>
</button>
<div id="primary-nav" class="collapse navbar-collapse"><ul id="main-menu" class="navbar-nav ml-auto"><li id="menu-item-8650" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-home menu-item-8650 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 1 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 1 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8928" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8928 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 2 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 2 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8500" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8500 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 3 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 3 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8219" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8219 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 4 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 4 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8169" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8169 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 5 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 5 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8170" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8170 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 6 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 6 }}</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-8168" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8168 nav-item"><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 7 }}" class="nav-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 7 }}</a></li>
</ul></div>
</nav>
</div><!-- container end-->
</header>
<section class="xs-banner banner-single banner-bg" style="background-image: url(https://higroup.coding.al/wp-content/themes/evenex/assets/images/banner/bg_banner.png)">
<div class="container">
<div class="d-flex align-items-center banner-area">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-12">
<h1 class="xs-jumbotron-title" style="color: #ffffff">{{ keyword }}</h1>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section><div id="main-content" class="main-container blog-single sidebar-active" role="main">
<div class="container">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-8 col-md-12 mx-auto">
<article id="post-9047" class="post-content post-single post-9047 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry pmpro-has-access">
<div class="post-body clearfix">
<!-- Article header -->
<header class="entry-header clearfix">
<div class="post-meta">
<span class="post-meta-date">
<i class="far fa-clock"></i>
January 1, 2022</span><span class="meta-categories post-cat">
<i class="far fa-folder-open"></i>
Uncategorized
</span> <span class="post-comment"><i class="far fa-comment-alt"></i><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 8 }}" class="comments-link">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 8 }}</a></span>
</div>
</header><!-- header end -->
<!-- Article content -->
<div class="entry-content clearfix">
<p>{{ text }}</p>
<p>{{ links }}</p>
</div> <!-- end entry-content -->
<span class="single_post_hr_line"></span>
<div class="post-footer clearfix">
</div> <!-- .entry-footer -->
</div> <!-- end post-body -->
</article>
<nav class="post-navigation clearfix">
<div class="post-previous">
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<h3>{{ keyword }}</h3>
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<h3 id="reply-title" class="comment-reply-title">{{ keyword }}<small><a rel="nofollow" id="cancel-comment-reply-link" href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 10 }}" style="display:none;">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 10 }}</a></small></h3></div><!-- #respond -->
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<ul>
<li><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 11 }}">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 11 }}</a></li> <li><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 12 }}">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 12 }}</a></li>
<li><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 13 }}">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 13 }}</a></li>
<li><a href="{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX-ANCHOR 14 }}">{{ KEYWORDBYINDEX 14 }}</a></li>
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</html>";s:4:"text";s:35551:"Unfortunately, this often do not happen. assume during an observational study. This protocol template is based on the essential protocol elements in Section 6 of the ICH E6 guidance on Good Clinical Practice. This ignores the limitations of randomised trials, which may prove unnecessary, inappropriate, impossible, or inadequate. <a href="https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/types-of-observational-studies">Types of Observational Studies | Indeed.com</a> JMIR MHEALTH AND UHEALTH Yong et al Original Paper Meal-time Smartphone Use in an Obesogenic Environment: Two Longitudinal Observational Studies Joceline Y Y Yong1, BA; Eddie M W Tong2, PhD; Jean C J Liu1,3, PhD 1 Division of Social Sciences, Yale-National University of Singapore College, Singapore, Singapore 2 Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore . One use of observational studies is to determine the frequency of occurrence, impact, prognosis, and other characteristics of diseases or other conditions in populations or in selected subgroups of the population. <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html">Observation Methods - Naturalistic, Participant and ...</a> The safety and scientific validity of this study is the responsibility of the study sponsor and investigators. They are often conducted when an experiment would be unethical. Observational Studies Instrumental variable approach for estimating a causal hazard ratio: application to the effect of postmastectomy radiotherapy on breast cancer patients Yang, F., Cheng, J., and Huo, D. (2019). Observational research is the wide-ranging set of methods businesses use to collect information by directly or indirectly "watching" consumers act in natural (and sometimes planned) environments. Findings from observational studies usually need to be confirmed by higher-quality research, such as an experimental study, to be considered reliable. For instance, medical researchers may identify and follow a group of similar individuals over many years to assess the possible influences of behavior on cancer risk. <a href="https://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13643-018-0915-2">The risk of bias in observational studies of exposures ...</a> Observational studies have played a key role in supporting the results of Phase III studies of insulin analogues for the treatment of patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The various types of observational studies all offer distinct advantages to individuals or organizations looking to conduct research. Forty-two observational studies including 63,893 participants were included. Interspersed throughout the article are some examples of LIS studies in which the observation method has been used. You can read the guideline in any of these journals using the links below. The quality and strength of evidence provided by an observational study is determined largely by its design. <a href="https://www.mrcctu.ucl.ac.uk/patients-public/about-clinical-trials/what-is-an-observational-study/">What is an observational study? | MRC Clinical Trials Unit ...</a> <a href="https://faculty.elgin.edu/dkernler/statistics/ch01/1-2.html">Section 1.2: Observational Studies versus Designed Experiments</a> The term observational research is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. Under this umbrella term are a multitude of designs, including experimental studies (e.g., non-randomized controlled clinical trials), quasi-experimental studies (e.g., controlled before-after studies, interrupted time series), and traditional observational studies (e.g., cohort, case-control, cross-sectional studies). A common goal in statistical research is to investigate causality, which is the relationship between an event (the cause . JMIR MHEALTH AND UHEALTH Yong et al Original Paper Meal-time Smartphone Use in an Obesogenic Environment: Two Longitudinal Observational Studies Joceline Y Y Yong1, BA; Eddie M W Tong2, PhD; Jean C J Liu1,3, PhD 1 Division of Social Sciences, Yale-National University of Singapore College, Singapore, Singapore 2 Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore . Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government. AU - Bilder, Deborah A. These studies can involve observation or intervention. As such, it's used primarily in B2C contexts. observational study to be one in which the study identifies the population and determines the exposure/treatment from historical data (i.e., data generated prior to the initiation of the study). Observational Study to Evaluate the Actual Use of Elidel® in Chinese Patients With Mild to Moderate Atopic Dermatitis. Participants who have completed the evaluations throughout the year show a significant increase in psychological well-being, subjective well-being . Here, we'll cover everything from the observational study definition to how it works, different types, the ethics behind it, and more. Observational child study is an important research method in which a researcher observes behavior in a systematic manner without influencing or interfering with the behavior. A previous methodological guideline published 18 years ago fo- To address some investigative questions in plastic surgery, randomized controlled trials are not always indicated or ethical to conduct. • Compare the groups using _____or _____ - Randomized Experiment • Obtain a group of study participants (often volunteers) • Manipulate We included observational studies (cohort or nested case-control) that compared statin use vs non-use for primary prevention of CVD in older people aged ≥ 65 years; provided that each of them reported the risk estimate on at least one of the following primary outcomes: all cause-mortality, CVD death, myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke. Observational studies draw inferences about the effect of an "exposure" or intervention, when the intervention is not specifically assigned by the researcher conducting the study. Ultimately the principles identified by the two task forces for evaluating prospective and . Observational child study methods are . Observational studies are ones where researchers observe the effect of a risk factor, diagnostic test, treatment or other intervention without trying to change who is or isn't exposed to it. A recent study comparing the ROBINS-I to two other tools for assessing risk of bias in observational studies found that users of the tool rated the ROBINS-I lowest for clarity of instructions, clarity of items and discriminating between high and low risk of bias studies and that the ROBINS-I required the most time for training and application . - Observational study • randomly select a sample of subjects • Record data for each subject on amount of exercise and number of colds last year. AU - Harding, Cary O. Considering the existing problems, we suggest reviewers who include observational studies in their CR should learn how to use GRADE systematically, to achieve appropriate use and reporting. Observational studies use samples to draw conclusions about a population when the researchers do not control the treatment, or independent variable, that relates to the primary research question. The view is widely held that experimental methods (randomised controlled trials) are the "gold standard" for evaluation and that observational methods (cohort and case control studies) have little or no value. Excellent methods of analysis will not salvage a poorly designed study. Observational studies are by far the most common form of clinical research because of their relatively low complexity, cost, and ethical constraints compared to randomized trials or other forms of clinical experimentation. In particular, observational studies can be of benefit in the study of large, heterogeneous patient populations with complex, chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus. 5 San Francisco Chronicle, March 19, 1996: People with cellular phones in their cars run a 34 percent higher risk of having accidents, researchers said yesterday. This guideline was published simultaneously in 8 journals. AU - Harding, Cary O. Epidemiological studies are used to establish associations between risk factors and health-related outcomes. Synonym: observational trial See also: study AU - Baerwald, Christoph. An observational study can be used to determine whether an existing condition, called a factor, in a population is related to a characteristic of interest. Observational studies lead the way in research, allowing you to formulate hypotheses and test those hypotheses in controlled experiments. Prospective observational studies have the potential advant-age of collecting the specific study measures desired; retrospec-tive studies use existing data sets but have the advantage of generally being less costly and require less time to conduct. An observational study is research whereby variables are beyond the control of researchers. Others may use audio and/or video tapes. In these cases, the populations are individuals who live in the area covered by the disease registry or included in a cohort study (i.e., nested case-control or case-cohort). Observers may simply begin with a blank notebook and write down everything that goes on. Observational Studies Instrumental variable approach for estimating a causal hazard ratio: application to the effect of postmastectomy radiotherapy on breast cancer patients Yang, F., Cheng, J., and Huo, D. (2019). Observational Studies and the Problem of Confounding Is the use of cell phones while driving dangerous? Observational studies are nonexperimental investigations of the associations between known exposures and outcomes. We review statistical principles that are fundamental to understanding what observational data can offer. If you're curious to learn more about it, keep reading. Emily has decided to conduct an observational study to collect data on ballet dancers and their grades in school. Observational studies are an important category of study designs. They focused on the first car parked near the school's entrance. But what are observational studies, and why do they matter? The safety and scientific validity of this study is the responsibility of the study sponsor and investigators. The medical literature features many observational studies that use traditional significance testing to assert whether an effect was observed. The goal of observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables. Doctors, patients, and other decision makers need access to the best available clinical evidence, which can come from systematic reviews, experimental trials, and observational research. T1 - A non-interventional observational study to identify and validate clinical outcome assessments for adults with phenylketonuria for use in clinical trials. von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gotzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP. For a good example, try visiting the Pew Research Center. Just click on any article and you'll see an example of an observational study. Because observational studies differ in many aspects from RCTs, guidance aimed at reviews of RCTs should be applied with cau-tion to observational studies [10, 11]. observational studies exploring causal effects are nevertheless extremely common in health and medical research, although their causal aims are rarely described explicitly. This is in contrast to randomised controlled trials where investigators do intervene and look at the effects of the intervention on an outcome . An observational study is an attempt to estimate the effects of a treatment when subjects are not randomly assigned to treatment or control. Scientists might use longitudinal research to answer questions about the effect of certain behaviors, like regular exercise or meditation, or foods - like chocolate or a Mediterranean diet, for example - on the long-term health of the participants. RWE can be generated by different study designs . The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. They are called observational studies because the investigator observes individuals without manipulation or intervention. The concept of bias, and confounding in particular, is . r reporting and interpretation of observational studies. The main goals of this chapter are to delineate the strengths and problems associated with measuring discrimination using observational studies and to identify methodological tools that are particularly promising for . This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. T1 - A non-interventional observational study to identify and validate clinical outcome assessments for adults with phenylketonuria for use in clinical trials. Indeed, observational studies are the primary tool through which researchers have explored racial disparities and discrimination. Many of the problems of conducting randomised trials could . A common goal in statistical research is to investigate causality, which is the relationship between an event (the cause . This ignores the limitations of randomised trials, which may prove unnecessary, inappropriate, impossible, or inadequate. The limitations of other types of surveys have led the Team to turn to an observational study as opposed to a study An observational study is an empiric investigation of effects caused by treatments when randomized experimentation is unethical or infeasible. Scientists might use longitudinal research to answer questions about the effect of certain behaviors, like regular exercise or meditation, or foods - like chocolate or a Mediterranean diet, for example - on the long-term health of the participants. 4 more often, observational studies adopt the language of 'prediction' or 'association', and they report 'independent' associations or 'predictors' after conditioning on one … That is, the researcher has no control over any treatments the subjects may be given or. Cohort, cross sectional, and case-control studies are collectively referred to as observational studies. An observational study is a study in which the researcher simply observes the subjects without interfering. These studies can take the form of observational or interventional studies. As the term suggests, an observational study observes the real world as opposed to creating a controlled experiment. on the use of observational studies in a learning health system, with a focus on the complementary roles of traditional trial evidence from randomized controlled trials and observational studies in helping to inform clinical and health policy decisions. STROBE (Strengthening The Reporting of OBservational Studies in Epidemiology) Checklist A checklist of items that should be included in reports of observational studies. You can use this research as a precursor to drug discovery and new drug indications. • Experimental study: Investigator intervenes in the care of the patient in a pre-planned way and records the outcome - Randomised controlled trials; laboratory studies • Observational study: Investigator does not intervene in the care of the patient, but simply records what happens - Cohort studies; case-control studies Retrospective descriptive studies should use the Descriptive Studies Protocol Template For instance, an observational study might be used to find the incidence of heart disease among those who smoke. 10. In a review of antipsychotic medications 17 short-term efficacy trials evaluated a relatively narrow spectrum of patients with schizophrenia, raising a number of questions: Is . Observational Studies. One of the primary tools of ethnographic study is the use of field notes. Observational studies come in two forms: prospective and retrospective studies. The possibility of using more than one control group has often been briefly mentioned in general discussions of observational studies, and many observational studies have used two control groups. The phrase "observational study" in this report refers to a non-interventional observation of residents' facial mask-wearing practice (type, prevalence, and proper use) in indoor public areas. These studies are a powerful tool to help researchers learn what happens in real-life studies. Introduction. An observational study is a study where researchers simply . To illustrate the issues described previously, we use as example a meta-analysis of observational studies assessing the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) in antipsychotic drug users.19 The dataset consists of nine studies published between 1992 and 2015: three case-control studies, two cohorts, two case-crossover studies and one self . Assuming that these studies have similar null distributions as our three example studies, we can test whether for historical significant findings, we can still reject the null hypothesis after calibration. In fields such as epidemiology, social sciences, psychology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population where the independent variable is not under the control of the researcher because of ethical concerns or logistical constraints. The concepts include the relationship between a study sample and the target population, and the two primary forms of statistical analysis: estimation and hypothesis testing. Bias, confounding, and issues with validity are more common in observational studies. observational studies is not as readily available as guidance for reviews of RCTs. Real-world evidence is the clinical evidence regarding the usage and potential benefits or risks of a medical product derived from analysis of RWD. You must report the page number in your manuscript where you consider each of the items listed in this checklist. 1 Although the participants' behaviour may change under observation, the intent of observational studies is to investigate the 'natural' state of risk factors, diseases or outcomes. Observational Study on the Use of Ivermectin as an Outpatient Treatment Option for COVID-19. Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. For drug therapy, a group of people taking the drug . AU - Baerwald, Christoph. 10. Need to include observational studies is clear at the onset of the review. In the study, being a smoker is the factor, and having heart disease is the Observational studies include retrospective or prospective cohort studies, cross sectional studies, case-control studies and some descriptive studies. Often these studies are the only practicable method of studying various problems, for example, studies of aetiology, instances where a randomised controlled trial might be unethical, or if the condition to be studied is rare. An observational study is a type of study that is used for many different purposes today. An observational study of adolescent females' Internet use reveals how online behaviours coupled with offline psychosocial and contextual factors are associated with subsequent vulnerability to . In addition, an overview of some of the characteristics unique to observational research, as well as validity and reliability and ethical issues, are addressed. AU - Bilder, Deborah A. Observational studies can help statisticians, scientists, psychologists, business market analysts and other professionals who want to understand natural behaviors or phenomena. Matching based on study level information is prone to bias, making appropriate capturing of uncertainty highly important. The scanning rates in our study, that is, 71% for medications, 91% for scannable doses and 80% for patient ID wristbands, are considerably lower than the 95% standard goal for scanning medications and patients.28 In a recent observational study of BCMA at a UK hospital, Barakat and Franklin registered scanning rates for medications of 83% . This partnership between the NIDCD and study investigators is enhanced through the . Many of the problems of conducting randomised trials could . What is Observational Research in Marketing? Instead, experimental trials in nutrition are likely to contradict the findings of earlier observational studies. Based on several studies that used folQ, it was found that athletes frequently employed the skill function of observational learning, followed by the strategy, and performance functions . observational study: A research study in which the results are obtained retrospectively or without a control group. Cohort studies are used to study incidence, causes, and prognosis. Cohort studies and case control studies are two types of observational studies. Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. observational study: a study drawing inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. AU - Burton, Barbara K. AU - Skalicky, Anne. These studies can involve observation or intervention. Indicate that the study was an observational study and, if applicable, use a common study design term Example 1 Title: 'An observational study with long-term follow-up of canine cognitive dysfunction: Clinical characteristics, survival and risk factors' (Fast et al., 2013 ). Observational studies that collect biospecimens, images, or other data involve human subjects, and require Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. Seatbelt use in 400 kids in school vehicles was measured using a checklist in this cross-sectional observational study. The view is widely held that experimental methods (randomised controlled trials) are the "gold standard" for evaluation and that observational methods (cohort and case control studies) have little or no value. Observational Study Definition An observational study measures the characteristics of a population by studying individuals in a sample, but does not attempt to manipulate or influence the variables of interest. Conclusions: A low proportion of CRs for observational studies were found and the use and reporting of the evidence assessment was irregular. When observational studies are conducted under a U01 or U10 cooperative agreement, the NIDCD assumes a partner role in project activities by providing assistance, advice, and coordination of study activities without assuming the primary directorship of the study. Selecting how and when data will be collected is an essential step in designing qualitative observational research studies. Observational studies identified in the initial search varied in methods, from study design through to outcome reporting, and ultimately only 12 studies were considered to supplement RCT evidence. Observational studies involve the study of participants without any forced change to their circumstances, that is, without any intervention. A prospective study identifies individuals and collects information as events unfold. Some examples include case reports, chart reviews, and longitudinal studies of large cohorts followed over time. We found that the use of ACEIs/ARBs was not significantly associated with a reduction in the relative risk of all-cause mortality [odds ratio (OR) = 0.87, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 0.75-1.00; I2 = 57%, p = 0.05]. Examples of the use of observational studies in comparative effectiveness reviews Example 1. Types of Epidemiological Studies. The observation crew sat in their car, closest to the school's entrance on one of the three sides: they had manually entered the variable into the checklist. The main goals of this chapter are to delineate the strengths and problems associated with measuring discrimination using observational studies and to identify methodological tools that are particularly promising for . Observational studies are a fundamental part of epidemiological research. observational study: a study drawing inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. Indeed, observational studies are the primary tool through which researchers have explored racial disparities and discrimination. Despite . AU - Burton, Barbara K. AU - Skalicky, Anne. Instead, observational studies may be the next best method to address these types of questions. Other studies may use disease registries or data from cohort studies to identify cases. In this prospective, observational non-controlled study, we examined the long-term impact that ayahuasca, used in a ceremonial Shipibo context, can have on the integral well-being of the individual. Not always indicated or ethical to conduct an observational study to contradict findings! 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