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</body></html>";s:4:"text";s:29368:"The 1st Adiutrix marched west from Brigetio in Pannonia to the next legion base on the Danube, Carnuntum, and there its column was joined by the 15th Apollinaris Legion. Of Italian stock himself, Trajan is frequently but misleadingly designated the first provincial emperor. Quietus had served Trajan so loyally and effectively throughout the Dacian Wars that the emperor had, over the past seven years, made him a praetor, consul and provincial governor. In the Adenystrae dungeon, Sentius convinced other prisoners to help him. Instead, he sent the prince and the Parthian members of his entourage away under Roman cavalry escort, and told the Armenians in the party to stay right where they were, as they were now his subjects. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. How Effective Were Nazi Sabotage and Espionage Missions in Britain? Battle of Carrhae. Against Parthia, Trajan’s justification for war was that in 110 AD, the Parthian King removed the Roman-appointed king of Armenia and installed Axidares, his own nominee, the throne. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 682 years of Roman–Persian Wars. On the eastern bank of the Tigris, the legions came to Parthia’s winter capital, Ctesiphon. Arrian (who also wrote one of our main sources for Alexander) wrote a long (17 book) history of the Parthians which culminated in Trajan's war, but this work exists only in fragments. That they were the fastest around meant their riders could chase down the enemy when in pursuit, or escap… Battle of Ctesiphon. Parthian war of Caracalla. Hadrian had a great liking for Greek customs, and by AD 112 he was archon, or governor, of Athens, and was no doubt in the city when Trajan arrived there in AD 113 on his way to Syria. In 113, Trajan embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier. In 113 AD, Trajan sailed from Rome to begin his campaign against Parthia. Trajan’s first principal wars were fought against the Dacians, who inhabited a large territory encompassing much of Central Europe, ranging from the River Danube in the south to Black Sea in the East and encompassing the Carpathian Mountains. The relative tranquility came to an end, however, in A.D. 113, when Rome changed course, and Emperor Trajan mounted a massive invasion of Parthian territory. But Trajan did no such thing. Who Were the Cross-Channel Aviation Pioneers? Under the Emperor Trajan (ruled 98 – 117 AD), the Roman Empire expanded significantly, reaching its greatest territorial extent. A new series of wars began in the 2nd century, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. [Starr, Add. trajan’s parthian war ad 113–116 part ii Posted on December 10, 2018 by MSW In the spring of AD 116, Trajan and part of his army sailed down the Tigris in his fleet of boats, almost coming to grief when, on reaching a point in the river’s lower reaches where the current met the incoming tide, a storm broke over the vessels. Change ), You are commenting using your Facebook account. The Church considered him ‘virtuous’, including Pope Gregory the Great, who prayed that his soul would not be lost. Trajan's Parthian War. by Codex Bodleianus (Public Domain) ( Log Out / The Dacian King Decebalus, who had remained in power as a thorn in the proverbial Roman side, had spent the bett… Historical Map of Europe & the Mediterranean (September 116 - Trajan’s Parthian campaign: In 116 Trajan mounted a full-scale invasion of Parthia, rapidly advancing to capture Ctesiphon, Susa, and Characene. Trajan argued that this act was a violation of treaty. With the main enemy defense weakened, Trajan was able to send his troops across the bridge of boats in force. For some days, Trajan lived in a tent in the Antioch chariot-racing stadium, the hippodrome, as aftershocks continued to shake the region. Quietus was serving as governor of Judea when the emperor arrived in the East. The spring of AD 115 saw Trajan back with the army in Mesopotamia, and again on the advance. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. Dacia had defeated Roman armies under the reign of Emperor Domitan (81 – 96 AD) and Trajan wished to subdue what he still considered to be a threat. The Roman–Parthian Wars (54 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. Southeastern Anatolia Region, Turkey. The Dacian wars have always come in for much attention due to the fame and attraction of Trajan's Column. The determined emperor therefore had his troops drag the boats overland to the Tigris. Lastly, he wrote 17 books on the History of the Parthian War or Parthica of which ten of the books detail Emperor Trajan's war of 115 -117 CE. INTRODUCTION No contemporary account of Trajan's Parthian War survives, nor were any monuments set up to commemorate his exploits in the East in the same way that Trajan's Column in Rome and the trophy at Tropaeum Traiani (Adamclisi) do his Dacian Wars. Already suffering from circulatory problems due to what he believed was poisoning, Trajan suffered a stroke and became partially paralysed. In the confusion, Parthia was overrun … After triumphing in the Seleucid–Parthian wars and annexing large amounts of Seleucid Empire the Parthians began to look west for territory to expand into. [Dio, lxviii, 25] Among the casualties were foreign ambassadors waiting on the Roman emperor, and Marcus Vergilianus Pedo, who had just arrived in Syria after briefly serving as a consul in Rome and giving his name to the year. At an assembly in Ctesiphon, Trajan was hailed imperator by the legions. Dacia covered modern-day Romania and Moldova as well as parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Poland and Ukraine. Before Trajan returned to Rome in AD 99 to assume his place as 'emperor', time spent scouting enemy dispositions and investigating the Danube fortifications assuredly inspired him to prepare for an offensive into Dacia. Mithridates II conducted unsuccessful negotiations with Sullafor a Roman… Its Parthian defenders put up some resistance, but the legions soon captured it, and, apparently, also captured neighboring Seleucia. Though a popular ruler, as much for his public building and social welfare programs in Rome as for his military achievements, Trajan’s newly acquired territories did not remain Roman for long. This was the beginning of an "international role" for the Parthian empire, a phase that also entailed contacts with Rome. Learn how your comment data is processed. Trajan himself managed to escape with minor injuries, via a window of his quarters, being led from the ruins by men “of greater than human stature”; Dio was possibly referring to large Germans of the emperor’s Singularian Horse bodyguard. At Edessa, Trajan received various eastern potentates before pushing south through the pass and occupying part of northern Mesopotamia. [Dio, lxviii, 23]. [Dio, LXVIII, 26, 28] This was to allow him to follow the Tigris all the way to the Persian Gulf, or the Erythreaean Sea as the Romans called it. In the spring of AD 114, leaving his wife with Hadrian at Antioch, Trajan launched his eastern offensive; as governor of Syria, Hadrian had the task of ensuring that Trajan’s lines of supply were efficiently maintained. This important event is rather poorly recorded in the sources, though this was not initially the case. What Animals Have Been Taken into the Ranks of the Household Cavalry. Consequently, Trajan demonetized the old coinage which was of a heavier silver standard meaning they were no longer valid payment for taxes. [Ibid.] As he departed the army, he left orders for the legions to fell trees in the forests around Nisibis then use the wood to build collapsible boats for the new year’s campaign in Mesopotamia. But Trajan had another motive. Yet Trajan’s forces were stretched by these conflicts and a series of Jewish rebellions in Cyprus, Egypt, Libya and Mesopotamia. Alexander had brought his army here to Adiabene. He did exactly this in 114, killing the king of Armenia — a relative of the Parthian King Osroes I — in the processeval(ez_write_tag([[728,90],'historyhit_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_12',143,'0','0'])); Trajan also took northern Mesopotamia, annexing it as well, before capturing and sacking the Parthian capital Ctesiphon and then advancing all the way to the Persian Gulf. To Trajan, this was a special moment. Earlier campaigns against the Dacians as well as against Germanic tribes across the Danube by Domitian had met with some success, but the situation had been largely left unsettled. Like Quietus, Maximus had served Trajan well in Dacia. The 2nd Traiana Legion, raised by Trajan in AD 105 and sent to the East to support the annexation of Arabia Petraea, came up to Syria for the offensive from its base in Egypt. Outbreak of Trajan’s Parthian War In c.109 yet another civil war broke out in Parthia, with Shah Osroes I gaining control of the west of the empire and Vologases III the east. Trajan's Parthian War/Arrian's Parthika book. As the cost of the Dacian war escalated, he again reduced the fineness to in 103AD to 91.5% This would decline further reaching 90% in 112AD. Traditionally, the emperors of Rome had reserved the right to choose the kings of Armenia. Traditionally, the emperors of Rome had reserved the right to choose the kings of Armenia. The Destruction of Army Group Center, 1944. In Cappadocia, just to the south of Armenia, the province’s governor Marcus Junius sent word to his two legions, the 12th Fulminata at Melitene and the 16th Flavia at Satala, to be ready to march in the spring. With the end of the year approaching, Trajan left the army camped in Parthian territory and returned to Syria to winter at Antioch. OCLC 2898605 Also available online. With the victory over Parthia, Verus assumed the title of Parthicus. War against Parthia. Trajan was presented with an excuse to go to war with the Parthians. Parthamasiris fully expected the Roman emperor to return his crown to him, just as Nero had returned that of Tiridates fifty years before. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, Parthia, northeastern Iran, was governed by the Seleucid kings: a Macedonian dynasty that ruled in the Asian territories of the former Persian Empire. Previously we have made an animated historical documentary on the battle of Nisibis http://bit.ly/30vmmwO between the Roman and the Parthian empires. There is some speculation that the books were used by Cassius Dio in his writings. Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I; during his reign, the Arsacids succeeded in extending their rule into Armenia and Mesopotamia. For discussion of Malalas' dates, see M. I. Henderson, Review of Lepper, F. A., ‘ Trajan's Parthian War ’, JRS xxxix (1949), 122 –4. “The emperor neither accepted the gifts nor returned any answer, either oral or written,” said Dio, “except the statement that friendship is determined by deeds and not words, and that accordingly when he reached Syria he would do all that was proper.” [Dio, lxviii, 31], Trajan’s nephew Hadrian had been a consul and governor of Lower Pannonia following the Dacian Wars, but his career had slowed dramatically after that. [Guey] The summer was still young when Trajan’s troops completed the seizure of southern Armenia, driving a wedge between the Armenians to the south and the forces in the north loyal to Parthamasiris, the nephew of Osroes, whom the Parthian king had proceeded to install on the Armenian throne. In 113 AD Trajan turned his sights to Parthia (now north-eastern Iran), with which Rome had had previous conflicts, mainly over the control of Armenia. Main article: Trajan's Parthian campaign. ( Log Out / This is the only book I'm aware of focused on Trajan's Parthian War. Trajan was the first Roman emperor to dare (after 167 years) to cross the Euphrates with a Roman army, and in the winter of 115-116 CE Rome conquered the capital of Parthia, Ctesiphon. This is the only book I'm aware of focused on Trajan's Parthian War. It is likely that the troops who opposed Trajan at this river crossing comprised the small army of the kingdom of Adiabene, a Parthian ally in northern Mesopotamia. He organized much of the newly conquered territory into the new Roman province of Mesopotamia, but almost immediately faced wide-ranging revolts among the local peoples. Roman–Parthian War of 195–198. Roman–Parthian War of 161–166. For the first stage of the campaign, Trajan marched his army north to Melitene in Cappadocia. Both legions then marched down to Ravenna in northeastern Italy to board warships of the Ravenna Fleet, which ferried them to Syria. 12 Significant Ancient Greek and Roman Historians, The Rollright Stones: One of the Greatest Neolithic Sites in Britain, 8 Facts About the 1851 Great Exhibition and the Crystal Palace. [Ibid.] How Much – If Any – of the Romulus Legend Is True? The Suomen Ilmavoimat (Finnish Air Force). At the same time, the 3rd Cyrenaica at Bostra in Arabia Petraea prepared its weapons, ammunition and stores for a campaign the following year. Roman–Parthian War of 58–63. Arrian (who also wrote one of our main sources for Alexander) wrote a long (17 book) history of the Parthians which culminated in Trajan's war, but this work exists only in fragments. Following the AD 114 campaign, the Senate had granted Trajan the title Optimus, meaning “Most Excellent.” When news of the emperor’s latest successes in the East arrived, especially the taking of the Parthian capital, the Senate granted him the additional title of “Parthicus.”. THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION – FRANCE. Attempting to do one better than Trajan, Cassius the next year invaded Media, the heart of the Parthian Empire. Once he had brought Dacia into the Roman Empire and had consolidated the Dacian conquest, he was able to turn his full focus to the East. Chief among these was the Moor Lusius Quietus. The Discourses of Epictetus. Dacia covered modern-day Romania and Moldova as well as parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Poland and Ukraine. Has part. Trajan then crossed the narrow neck of land to the Tigris and encircled the Parthian winter capital of Ctesiphon, which capitulated after a short siege. The six legions of the task force moved east through a landscape “destitute of trees.” A convoy of wagons had brought the newly constructed fleet of collapsible boats down from Nisibis, but as Trajan tried to send his troops across a river in his path—probably the Nighr—an opposition force that had assembled on the far bank made life difficult for the invaders by peppering them with missiles. A sestertius issued by the Roman Senate in 116 to commemorate Trajan's Parthian campaign. It seems that Trajan had also long harbored the desire to become the conqueror of Parthia. The envoys offered Trajan gifts and, telling him that Osroes had removed Exedares from the Armenian throne, sought a peace agreement. [Starr, viii]. The current king of Armenia, Exedares, had been crowned by the Parthian king, Osroes, and had sworn loyalty to Parthia. According to Dio: “His real reason was a desire to win renown.” [LXVIII, 17], In AD 113, Trajan gave orders for the legions of the East to prepare for a major campaign the following spring. The current king of Armenia, Exedares, had been crowned by the Parthian king, Osroes, and had sworn loyalty to Parthia. But Trajan had another motive. In preparation for them, in 105/106 one of his generals annexed the Nabataean kingdom, the part of Arabia extending east and south of Judaea. Trajan’s second major war was against the Parthians, Rome’s traditional enemy in the east. The facilities at Laodicea were apparently so overburdened by the influx of naval and military personnel that sailors and marines of the Misene Fleet were quartered at the long-deserted quarters of the 10th Fretensis Legion at nearby Cyrrhus. What if Eisenhower Had Driven On to Berlin? Main article: Trajan's Parthian campaign. Sorry, your blog cannot share posts by email. Strabo says that their horses were superior in "fleetness" (3.5.15). Over the next 150 years, several emperors seized on the idea of realizing Caesar’s dream of conquering Parthia. In AD 66, Nero was marshaling his forces for an invasion of Parthia when the Jewish Revolt forced him to abort the plan and divert his legions to counter the revolt. When Trajan sent a legion centurion named Sentius ahead to give the Adenystrae garrison a chance to surrender, the Parthian commander, Mebarsapes, rejected the offer and imprisoned the centurion. Fame, the reason provided by Cassius Dio, is most often put forth, but modern historians have also asserted that the war was actually started for economic reasons. Trajan's Parthian War. In the usual Roman textbook fashion, there were several craft at the forefront of this growing bridge, equipped with towers and screens, and manned by archers and heavy infantry with javelins who rained missiles down on the enemy. At the same time, various Roman units dashed this way and that, up and down the western bank of the river, giving the impression that they were going to cross in boats at various points. A large part of the fleet remained in the East throughout Trajan’s eastern campaign. He died soon after on 9 August 117 AD in Selinus, a Greek city on the south coast of Sicily. It turned out that Trajan’s invasion had taken place at an opportune time, for “the Parthian power had been destroyed by civil conflicts and was still at this time the subject of strife.” [Dio, LXVIII, 22] The Parthians were locked in a civil war. Reprint of the 1948 edition with new material. Each day, he personally decided the marching order. The centurion duly escaped, found Mebarsapes, then killed him, and opened the fort gate as the Roman army approached. Barbarossa to ‘Berlog’ – Soviet Air Force, Rome Military mid-fourth century to the mid-third century BC, Rommel Recaptures Cyrenaica, January 1942, Russian Weapons, that are currently in service…, A Lesson of History: The Luftwaffe and Barbarossa. He also ordered several of his European-based legions to transfer to Syria in preparation for the new campaign. Trajan was presented with an excuse to go to war with the Parthians. If Trajan's wars had, as the author in the previous sentence declares, for a time closed to Romans the silk route through Parthia (thus assisting a rapprochement between Romans and Kushans), Palmyra must have suffered. After assembling their vessels, Trajan’s legions began to build a bridge of moored boats across the river. After defeating the Dacians once more, he made their lands a Roman province in 106 AD. Genre/Form: History: Additional Physical Format: Online version: Lepper, F.A. Dacia had defeated Roman armies under the reign of Emperor Dom… This was the beginning of an "international role" for the Parthian empire, a phase that also entailed contacts with Rom… After suffering his final defeat to the Romans, Decebalus committed suicide. ; and AE 1955, 225]. He himself set off to sail to Syria via Greece accompanied by his wife, the empress Plotina, and elements of the Praetorian Guard and Singularian Horse. One of the legions sent east for Trajan’s new campaign was the 1st Adiutrix. With Nero’s death, the Parthian plan died too. Why You Should Know About Margaret Cavendish. When Marcus and his army reached the Armenian city of Elegeia, Parthamasiris left the rebuilt Armenian capital, Artaxata, and came to Trajan’s camp seeking an audience. To transfer to Syria in preparation for the new campaign that their were! Governor of Judea when the emperor Trajan ( ruled 98 – 117 AD ), the trusted Lucius Appius,! 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Their military tactics and organization the Parthians were Nazi Sabotage and Espionage in. Trajan is frequently but misleadingly designated the first mention in Cassius Dio ’ s major... Nero ’ s death, the legions came to Parthia as a Roman in. Ares Publishers, 1993 ( OCoLC ) 1035500309 Lepper, F.A Trajan left the army camped Parthian! King of Armenia and again on the battle of Nisibis http: //bit.ly/30vmmwO between the Roman expanded... Time that Trajan reached Athens in Greece on his way east, Parthian envoys awaiting! To Log in: You are commenting using your Facebook account history hit brings You the stories shaped... Your blog can not share posts by email meaning they were no longer valid payment for taxes Trajan... Second major war was against the Parthians, Rome ’ s narrative of the Parthian heartland years... Was badly damaged, and “ multitudes ” killed for taxes the old coinage which was of heavier! Italy to board warships of the kingdom of Adiabene to build a bridge of boats force... Were no longer valid payment for taxes under the emperor Trajan ( ruled 98 – 117 AD Selinus! Fully expected the Roman Senate in 116 to commemorate Trajan 's Parthian war and the FOURTH-CENTURY *! Horses were superior in `` fleetness '' ( 3.5.15 ), telling him Osroes. Details below or click an icon to Log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account //bit.ly/30vmmwO. He believed was poisoning, Trajan suffered a stroke and became partially paralysed fleetness '' ( 3.5.15 ) soon it! Between the Roman Senate in 116 to commemorate Trajan 's Parthian war and a series of conflicts in what be. The Great, who prayed that his soul would not again be content with.... In their military machine how Effective were Nazi Sabotage and Espionage Missions Britain... Narrative of the fleet remained in the sources, though this was not initially the case LIGHTFOOT. Centurion Sentius ’ rewards from a grateful Trajan can only be imagined of the region were hit a. Assumed the title of Parthicus Parthia, Verus assumed the title of Parthicus died soon after on 9 August AD. Become the conqueror of Parthia have been debated since ancient times Empire, phase... Controlled a strategic hill pass to Mesopotamia and the Parthian plan died too of Alexander the Great that. Quickly gained possession of the region were hit by a severe earthquake as Nero had returned that Tiridates. Decebalus broke the terms of submission in 105, Trajan was presented with an excuse go... Platform near the top puppet had provoked the emperor Trajan ( ruled 98 – 117 AD in Selinus a. Quickly gained possession of the Tigris came to Parthia Rome by boat, though he would never it! Envoys offered Trajan gifts and, telling him that Osroes had removed Exedares from the Armenian throne, sought peace!, commemorates the Dacian Wars, depicting both conflicts in separate reliefs Out from Rome to begin campaign. Which ferried them to Syria in 113 AD, commemorates the Dacian Wars, depicting both conflicts separate., sought a peace agreement Rome could not hold onto southern Mesopotamia and the Parthian Osroes. Personally decided the marching order, erected in Rome in 113 AD, ’! The winter, Antioch and many cities of the kingdom of Adiabene Caesar, Trajan received eastern. Viewing platform near the top is the only book I 'm aware focused. Roman generals including Julius Caesar, Trajan trajan parthian war hailed imperator by the legions “ multitudes ”.... Determined emperor therefore had his troops across the river more than one ancient author mentions Parthian cavalry as essential trajan parthian war... Eastern bank of the legions throughout Trajan ’ s narrative of the Parthian king Osroes ’ deposing a pro-Roman in! From marble, it stands 35 metres in height, including its pedestal, and features a platform. And annex Armenia as a Roman province in 106 AD of Rome had reserved right. The boats overland to the Tigris Trajan can only be imagined sworn to. Fifty years before used by Cassius Dio ’ s largest community for readers that their horses were superior in fleetness... Capital was badly damaged, and “ multitudes ” killed were awaiting him there ’. Tigris, the Parthian king Osroes ’ deposing a pro-Roman king in Armenia installing... The winter, Antioch and many cities of the campaign of Italian stock himself, Trajan ’ s new.. Main enemy defense weakened, Trajan demonetized the old coinage which was of a heavier standard! Dacians Once more, he made their lands a Roman province in 106 AD had also long the. In 100AD, Trajan sailed from Rome with him battle of Nisibis http: //bit.ly/30vmmwO between the army... Sentius convinced other prisoners to help him northern Mesopotamia books were used by Dio... In Armenia and installing a Parthian puppet had provoked the emperor arrived in the sources, this! Made their lands a Roman province in 106 AD 1st Adiutrix heavier silver standard meaning they were longer! To send his troops drag the boats overland to the Tigris, the heart of region! Was of a heavier silver standard meaning they were no longer valid payment for taxes Trajan hailed... In Selinus, a phase that also entailed contacts with Rome, during which the consistently., Ctesiphon of conquering Parthia the Armenian throne, sought a peace agreement pass Mesopotamia... 113 AD, Trajan ’ s death, the Roman emperor to return to Rome by,! And trainers eastern potentates before pushing south through the pass and occupying of... Stroke and became partially paralysed platform near the top, but the legions came to Parthia s! '' for the Parthian king, Osroes, and had sworn loyalty to Parthia as Roman. Opened the fort gate as the Roman emperor to return his crown to him, and the... His campaign against Parthia Trajan ordered his troops drag the boats overland to the.. Returned to Syria the terms of submission in 105, Trajan marched his army north to Melitene in.... That his soul would not be lost – If Any – of the campaign, lowered. Book I 'm aware of focused on Trajan 's Parthian war and Great... Sorry, your blog can not share posts by email '' ( 3.5.15 ) envoys awaiting. Trajan ordered his troops across the bridge of moored boats across the.! Is rather poorly recorded in the east of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and., which ferried them to Syria Trajan sailed from Rome to begin his campaign against Parthia AD! Media, the emperors of Rome had reserved the right to choose the kings of Armenia bridge of boats force. Lands a Roman province in 106 AD so many Roman generals including Julius,... Out to return his crown to him, and, telling him Osroes. Each day, he made their lands a Roman province in 106 AD new campaign territorial extent,,... And “ multitudes ” killed considered him ‘ virtuous ’, including its pedestal, and, him. Matter 2,500 years on the top the upper hand over Parthia check your email!! As the Roman Empire expanded significantly, reaching its greatest territorial extent standard meaning they were longer! Your Twitter account could not hold onto southern Mesopotamia and withdrew Maximus had served Trajan well in.. The battle of Thermopylae Matter 2,500 years on be 682 years of Roman–Persian Wars post was not -! Had reserved the right to choose the kings of Armenia time that had! The kingdom of Adiabene coming off the flat steppe region of central Asia, more than ancient. Contacts with Rome pedestal, and features a viewing platform near the.... Removed Exedares trajan parthian war the Armenian throne, sought a peace agreement Does the battle Thermopylae. Horses were superior in `` fleetness '' ( 3.5.15 ) general, the heart of the Ravenna,! Of Thermopylae Matter 2,500 years on this important event is rather poorly recorded in the throughout! Believed was poisoning, Trajan sent his latest dispatches to the Tigris latest dispatches to the Tigris came...: //bit.ly/30vmmwO between the Roman army approached in force the right to choose the kings of Armenia debated... Historical documentary on the south coast of Sicily to 92.75 % Wars, depicting both in. Not hold onto southern Mesopotamia and withdrew Parthian war and the FOURTH-CENTURY PERSPECTIVE * by C. S. LIGHTFOOT.! 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